rrangement of elements i.e. specifiers heads and complements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule. The phrase structural rule for NP VP AP and PP can be written as follows: NP → Det N PP ... VP → Qual V NP ... AP → Deg A PP ... PP → Deg P NP ... We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N V A or P. The XP rule: XP → specifier X complement 3. What is category How to determine a words category Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence a noun phrase or a verb. To determine a words category three criteria are usually employed namely meaning inflection and distribution. 若详细回答则要加上 Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. The meanings associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives. For example when we say that pretty lady we are attributing the property ‘pretty’ to the lady designated by the noun. Similarly the properties and attributes of the actions sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted by adverbs. For example in Jenny left quietly the adverb quietly indicates the manner of Jennys leaving. The second criterion to determine a words category is inflection. Words of different categories take different inflections. Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as work and help take past tense affix -ed and progressive affix -ing. And adjectives like quiet and clever take comparative affix -er and superlative affix -est. Although inflection is very helpful in determining a words category it does not always suffice. Some words do not take inflections. For example nouns like moisture fog do not usually take plural suffix -s and adjectives like frequent intelligent do not take comparative and superlative affixes -er and -est. The last and more reliable criterion of determining a words category is its distribution. That is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. For example nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card verbs with an auxiliary such as should stay and will go and adjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright. A words distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional 2 capabilities help identify its syntactic category. 4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures. It has 或写Conjunction exhibits four important properties: 1 There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction. 2 A category at any level a head or an entire XP can be coordinated. 3 Coordinated categories must be of the same type. 4 The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined. 5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play A phrase usually contains the following elements: head specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier. The role each element can play: Head: Head is the word around which a phrase is formed. Specifier: Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically it typically marks a phrase boundary. Complement: Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head. Modifier: Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads. 6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first formed by the XP rule in accordance with the heads subcategorization properties is called deep structure or D-structure. The second corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations is called surface structure or S-structure. 以下几题只作初步的的成分划分未画树形图 仅供参考 7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences. a The old lady got off the bus carefully. Det A N V P Det N Adv b The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank. Det N Adv V P Det N c The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools. Det A N Aux V Det N P Det N d This cloth feels quite soft. Det N V Deg A 8. The following phrases include a head a complement and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each. a rich in minerals 3 XPAP → head rich A complement in minerals PP b often read detective stories XPVP → specifier often Qual head read V complement detective stories NP c the argument against the proposals XPNP → specifier the Det head argument N complement against the proposals PP d already above the window XPVP → specifier already Deg head above P complement the window NP d The apple might hit the man. S → NP The apple Infl might VP hit the man e He often reads detective stories. S → NP He VP often reads detective stories 9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence first identify the modifiers then draw the tree structures.斜体的为名词的修饰语划底线的为动词的修饰语 a A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution. b A huge moon hung in the black sky. c The man examined his car carefully yesterday. d A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm. 10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences. 划底线的为并列的范畴 a Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants. b Helen put on her clothes and went out. c Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics. 11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb an adjective a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence. a You know that I hate war. b Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam. c Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce. d The children argued over whether bats had wings. 12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences. a The essay that he wrote was excellent. b Herbert bought a house that she loved c The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics. 13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences. 斜体的为深层结构普通字体的为表层结构 a Would you come tomorrow you would come tomorrow b What did Helen bring to the party Helen brought what to the party c Who broke the window who broke the window
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