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Chapter 6 Pragmatics 语用学
1. What is pragmatics?
什么是语用学？
Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.
As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying meaning in a certain context, pragmatics can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study. It places the study of meaning in the context in which language is used.
语用学研究的是说某种语言的人怎样用句子去实现成功的交际。
由于交际的过程从本质来说是在一定的语境中表达意义的过程，因而语用学的本质是一种意义研究。它是一种将语言置于使用的语境中去的意义研究。
2. Pragmatics and semantics 语用学和语义学
Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning, but they are different. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning, the context of use is considered. If it is not considered, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.
语用学和语义学都是对意义的语言学研究，但两者是不同的。它们的本质区别在于研究意义时是否考虑了语言使用的语境。没有考虑到语境进行的研究就没有超出传统语义学的研究范围；相反，考虑到语境进行的研究就属于语用学的研究范围。
3. Context 语境
Context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.
语境是语言的语用研究中不可缺少的概念。它一般被理解为说话者和听话者所共有的知识。
The shared knowledge is of two types: the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place.
共有的知识包括他们所使用的语言方面的知识和双方对世界的认识，包括对世界的总的认识和对正在进行的语言交际所处的环境的具体认识。
4. Sentence meaning and utterance meaning 句子意义和话语意义
The meaning of a sentence is abstract, and de-contextualized, while utterance meaning is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.
句子的意义是抽象的，非语境化的，而话语的意义是具体的，受语境制约的。话语意义基于句子意义；它是一个句子的抽象意义在特定语境中的具体体现，或简而言之，在一个语境中的具体化。
5. Speech act theory 言语行为理论
Speech act theory is an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. It was originated with the British philosopher John Austin in the late 50’s of the 20th century.
言语行为理论是语言语用研究中的一个重要理论。它最初是由英国哲学家约翰.奥斯汀在20世纪50年代提出的。
According to speech act theory, we are performing actions when we are speaking.
根据言语行为理论，我们说话的同时是在实施某种行为。
According to speech act theory, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act.
根据言语行为理论，说话者说话时可能同时实施三种行为：言内行为，言外行为和言后行为。
a) A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax lexicon and phonology.
言内行为是说出词、短语和分句的行为， 它是通过句法、词汇和音位来表达字面意义的行为。
b) An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.
言外行为是表达说话者的意图的行为，它是在说某些话时所实施的行为。
c) A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.
言后行为是通过某些话所实施的行为，或讲某些话所导致的行为，它是话语所产生的后果或所引起的变化，它是通过讲某些话所完成的行为。
American philosopher-linguist John Searle classified illocutionary acts into five general types. Each type has a common, general purpose.
美国的哲学语言学家约翰.舍尔把言外行为分为五类，每一类行为都有一个共同的、普遍的目的。这五大类是：
a) representatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true
阐述类：陈述或描述说话者认为是真实的情况
示例：
I have never seen the man before. / the earth is globe.
b) directives: trying to get the hearer to do something
指令类：试图使听话者做某些事情
示例：
Open the window! / Would you like to go to the picnic with us?
c) commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action
承诺类：说话者自己承诺未来要有一些行为。
示例：
I promise to come. / I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail.
d) expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state
表达类：表达对某一现状的感情和态度。
示例：
I’m sorry for the mess I have made. / It’s really kind of you to have thought of me.
e) declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying something
宣告类：通过说话引起骤变。
示例：
I now declare the meeting open. / I fire you.
Important remark:
All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose or the same illocutionary point, but they differ in their strength or forth.
每一类中的行为都有同样的目的，但具有同样目的的言外行为可能具有不同程度的言外之力。
6. Principle of conversation 会话原则
American philosopher Paul Grice concluded that natural language had its own logic. His idea is that in making conversation, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate. This general principle is called the Cooperative Principle (CP).
美国哲学家保罗.格赖斯提出的会话原则旨在解释会话意义。他提出自然语言有其独特的逻辑关系。他认为会话的最高原则是合作，称为合作原则。
To be more specific, there are four maxims under this general principle:
在最高原则，即合作原则下，人们在交际中要遵守如下四个准则：
a) The maxim of quantity 数量准则
Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange).
使自己所说的话达到当前交谈目的所要求的详尽程度。
Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.
不能使自己所说的话比所要求的更详尽。
b) The maxim of quality 质量准则
Do not say what you believe to be false. 不要说自己认为不真实的话。
Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. 不要说自己缺乏足够证据的话。
c) The maxim of relation 关联准则
Be relevant. 说话要贴切，有关联。
d) The maxim of manner 方式准则
Avoid obscurity of expression. 避免晦涩的词语。
Avoid ambiguity. 避免歧义。
Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity). 说话要简要（避免累赘）。
Be orderly. 说话要有条理。
It is interesting and important to note that while conversation participants nearly always observe the CP, they do not always observe these maxims strictly. For various reasons these maxims are often violated, or “flouted”. Most of these violations give rise to what Grice calls “conversational implicature”. In other word, when we violate any of these maxims, our language becomes indirect.
虽然会话参与者几乎总是遵守合作原则的，但并非严格遵守。由于种种原因，这些原则经常被违反，尔对合作原则的违反则导致产生格赖斯所说的“会话含意”。也就是说，对任何一种合作原则的违反，都会使语言变得间接。
示例1：
Do you know where Mr. X lives?
Somewhere in the southern suburbs of the city.
违反数量准则
示例2：
Would you like to come to our party tonight?
I’m afraid I’m not feeling so well today.
违反质量准则
示例3：
The hostess is an awful bore. Don’t you think?
The roses in the garden are beautiful, aren’t they?
违反关联准则
示例4：
Shall we get something for the kids?
Yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.
违反方式准则来自：求助得到的回答
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