能否介绍一下英语简史？

Question

如题所述

Answer 1

英语的起源

一 英语的“家谱”
英语是印欧 (1ndo-European)语系。印欧语系是世界上最大的语系，包括欧洲、美洲和亚洲的大部分语言。讲印欧诸种语言的总人数约有十八亿七千五百万，占世界总人口的一半左右。早在1786年，英国梵文（Sanskrit)学者威廉·琼斯爵士 (Sir William Jones) 就指出：欧洲、印度、波斯等地的大多数语言，包括古希腊语、古拉丁语及古印度语属于同一“家族”。

原始印欧人是什么样的人? 他们居住在何方? 他们的语言究竞是什么样子的? 对这些问题，我们今天仍缺乏文献的考证。但是通过长时期的研究，语言学家们得出了探索性的结论他们发现：属于印欧语系的许多语种都有表示“冬天”、“雪”和“寒冷”等意义的词，这说明原始印欧语最初是在气候比较冷的地一带使用的。另一方面，某些热带地区动植物名称的词，如“狮子”、“大象”、“稻米”、“竹”、“棕榈树”等，在原始印欧语中是不存在的；而印欧语系各语种中却都有表示“白杨”、“栎树”、“柳树”、“白桦”、“熊”、“狼”、“羊”、“鹰”、“蜜蜂”等动植物名称的相似词。通过这样的探索和研究，许多人认为，当人类进入新石器时代，欧洲中东部曾居隹着一些游牧部落，他们饲养着象羊、狗、奶牛和马这样的家畜，会使用马和简陋的马车，并能够驰骋于一望无际的原野上。这些游牧部落就是原始印欧人，他们用于交际的语言就是原始印欧语。大约在公元前3500年至公元前2500年间，这些原始印欧人开始迁徒。有些向西移动，有些向东移动，而有些则向南移动，到达今天的南亚次大陆。这些部落的大迁徒导致印欧语系的逐步形成。古印度语与古代欧洲语言之所以非常相近，其历史根源即在于此。

印欧语系包括：（一）印度语族(Indic);（二）．伊朗语族(Iranian);(三)斯拉夫语族（Slavic）,(四)波罗的话族（Baltic）,（五）日耳曼语族（Germanic）,（六）拉丁语族（亦称罗曼语族[Romance]）, （七）凯尔特语族（Celtic）,（八）希腊语族；（九）阿尔巴尼亚语（Albanian）,（十）亚美尼亚语族（Armenian）, （十一）吐火罗语族（Tocharian;Tokharian）（十二）赫梯语族（Hittite）。日耳曼语族是一个比较大的语族。它又分为三个语支：(一)东日耳曼语支（EastGermanic）主要以现已绝迹的哥特语（Gothic）为代表；（二）北日耳曼语支（North Germanic）,主要以古北欧语（Oid Norse）为代表，包括今日的挪威语（Norwegian）、冰岛语（Icelandic）、瑞典语和丹麦语等；（三）西日耳曼语支（West Germanic）包括低地德语（Low German） 今日的荷兰语（Dutch）、高地德语（High German）、英语、弗里西亚语（Frisian）佛兰芒语（Flemish）等。因此，我们说：英语属于印欧语系的日耳曼语族的西日耳曼语支。

二 英语的形成

英国南面隔英吉利海峡（the English Channel）、多佛尔海峡（the Straits of Dover）与法国相望，东面和东南面隔北海(the North Sea)与荷兰、比利时、丹麦、挪威遥对。距 欧洲大陆最窄处的多佛尔海峡仅三十公里宽。英国的领土主要包括大不列颠岛和爱尔兰岛东北部。大不列颠岛包括三个地区：英格兰占南部和中部，威尔士占西部山地半岛，苏格兰占北部；其中以英格兰最为重要。大不列颠岛是欧洲第一大岛，海岸非常曲折，长达一万一千四百五十公里。英语就是在这样的地理环境中形成的。为了说明英语的起源，我们有必要回顾一下英语形之前的英国史前史。文物考查已经证明，古代印欧游牧部落西移之前今天的不列颠诸岛上已居住着旧石器人(Paleolithic Man)。那时，不列颠诸岛和欧洲大陆是连成一片的，英国和法国之间还没有今天的英吉利海峡和多佛尔海峡，莱茵河(the Rhine)与泰晤士河(the Thames)之间尚由其支流相接、今天的英国仍属欧洲大陆的一部分。大约在距今九千年的时候；由于地壳的变迁，大不列颠诸岛从欧洲大陆分离出来。所以史前的旧石器人能够在不列颠定居下来并不足为怪。曾任过英国首相的温斯顿·邱召尔Sir Winston Churchill）(1874?/FONT>1965)在其《说英语的民族史》（History of the English Speaking Peoples）一书中，曾这样描写居住在不列颠的旧石器人：很明显，那些赤身裸体或只披着兽皮的男人和女人或觅食于原始密林之中，或涉猎于沼泽、草滩至于他们所说的语言，尚无史料可查。大约在公元前3000年，伊比利亚人（Iberians）从地中海地区来到不列颠岛定居。他们给不列颠带来了新石器（Neolithic）文化，同时征服了先前在那儿居住的旧石器人。大约从公元前500年开始，凯尔特人；（Celts）从欧洲大陆进犯并占领了不列颠诸岛。凯尔特人最初居住在今天德国南部地区，他们是欧洲最早学会制造和使用铁器和金制装饰品的民族；在征服不列颠之前，他们曾征服了今天的法国、西班牙：葡萄牙、意大利等地区；来到不列颠后，一部分凯尔特人在今天的爱尔兰和苏格兰定居下来，其余的一部分占领了今天的英格兰的南部和东部。每到一处，他们都对伊比利亚人进行残酷的杀戳。凯尔特人讲凯尔特语。今天居住在苏格兰北部和西部山地的盖尔人（Gaels）仍使用这种语言。在英语形成之前凯尔特语是在不列颠岛上所能发现的唯一具有史料依据的最早的格言。 公元前55年的夏天，罗马帝国的恺撒大帝（Julius Caesar）在征服高卢（Gaul）之后来到不列颠。那时，他的目的未必是想征服不列颠，而是想警告凯尔特人不要支持那些居住在高占的、正受罗马人奴役的凯尔特同族人。恺撒大帝的这次‘不列颠之行’并没有给罗马帝国带来什么好处，相反却在一定程度上降低了他的威信。第二年，即公元前54年的夏天，恺撒大帝第二次亲临不列颠。这次，他在不列颠岛东南部站稳了脚跟，并与当地的凯尔特人发生了一些冲突。恺撒大帝虽然取胜，但并没有能使凯尔特人屈服。不久，他又回到了高卢；在以后的大约一百年间，罗马帝国并没有对不列颠构成很大的威胁。 英国历史上的真正的“罗马人的征服”(Roman Conquest)是在公元后43年开始的。当时罗马皇帝克罗迪斯(Claudius)率领四万人马，用了三年时间终于征服了不列颠岛的中部和中南部随后，整个的英格兰被罗马牢牢控制了。，随着军事占领，罗马文化与风格习惯渗入不列颠。罗马人的服装、装饰品、陶器和玻璃器皿很快在不列颠得到推广；社会生活开始：“罗马化”这必然导致拉丁语在不列颠的传播。在以胜利者自居的罗马人看来，凯尔特人无疑是“低贱的”，凯尔特语自然不能登“大雅之堂”那时，在不列颠，官方用语、法律用语、商业用语等均是拉丁语；拉丁语成了上层凯尔特人的第二语言。这就是凯尔特语词汇为什么很少能幸存下来的历史原因。在今日英语中，只是在一些地名和河流名称方面还保留着凯尔特的词汇成分。例如the Thames ,the Cam,the Dee ,the Avon , the Esk , the Exe , the Stour , the Aire , the Derwent , the Ouse , the Severn , the Tees , the Trent , the Wye等，均是凯尔特人命名的河流。在Duncombe, Winchcombe, Holcome, Cumberland, Coombe 等地名中，也可看到凯尔特语cumb (=deep valley::深谷）一词的成分，在Torcross , Torquay,Torrington等地名中，尚保留着凯尔特语torr (=high rock or peak;高岩或山顶）一词的成分。英国著名城市多尔佛（Dover）、约克(York)的名称也源于凯尔特语。罗马人占领不列颠长达四百年，直到公元407年，罗马人才因罗马帝国内外交困不得不开始撤离不列颠。

大约在公元449年，居住在西北欧的三个日耳曼部族侵犯不列颠。他们是盎格鲁（Angles）、撒克逊人（Saxons）和朱特人（Jutes）他们乘船横渡北海，借罗马帝国衰落、自顾不暇之机‘一举侵入大不列颠诸岛。他们遭到凯尔特人的顽强抵抗，征服过程拖延了一个半世纪之久：到了公元六世纪末，大不列颠请岛上原先的居民凯尔特人几乎灭绝，幸存者或逃入山林．或沦为奴隶。这就是英国历史上发生的“日耳曼人征服”，亦称“条顿人征服”Teutonic Conquest）。这次外来入侵．对英语的形成起了十分关键的作用。

盎格鲁人、撒克逊人和朱特人属古代日耳曼人。分市在北欧日德兰半岛、丹麦诸岛、德国西北沿海一带。在罗马帝国时期，他们往往统称为“蛮族部落”。他们从事畜牧和狩猎，过着半游牧的生活，且很早就知道农耕。他们的土地是氏族的公有财产，农业经营带有原始的流动性质。随着社会的发展，氏族公社逐渐解体，出现了氏族贵族和军事首领。他们的财富和权势在频繁的掠夺中剧增。军事首领名义上是由民众大会推选产生的，实际上都出于同一家族。恩格斯曾把这种氏族部落的管理制度称作军事民主制；他这样写道：“其所以称为军事民主制，是因为战争以及进行战争的组织现在已成为民族生活的正常职能。邻人的财富刺激了各民族的贪欲。这些民族把获得财富看成是最重要的生活目的之一。他们是野蛮人。进行掠夺在他们看来是比进行创造性劳动更容易，甚至更荣誉的事情。以前进行战争，只是为了对侵犯进行报复，或者是为了扩大已经感到不够的领上；观在进行战争，则纯粹是为了掠夺，战争成为经常的职业了。“ 这些所谓的‘蛮族”，在摧毁当时罗马帝国的奴隶制，以及推动西欧封建制度的诞生过程中，起过十分重要的作用。征服不列颠后，盎格鲁人主要占领了洪伯河（the Humber）以北地区；撒克逊人主要占领了泰晤士河以南地区；朱特人主要盘踞在英格兰东南端的肯特（Kent） 和南汉普郡（Southern Hampshire）；以及位于英格兰之南、靠近今天的朴次茅斯(Portsmouth)的怀特岛（the Isle of Wight），形成许多小国。公元七世纪初，这些小园合并为七个王国：南部有撒克逊人的威塞克斯（Wessex）、萨塞克斯(Sussex)和埃塞克斯(Essex)；东北部和中部有盎格鲁人的梅尔西亚(Mercia)、诺森伯里亚（Northumbria），和东盎格里亚(East Anglia)；东南部有朱特人的肯特(Kent)王国。各国竞相争雄，达两百年之久；在英国历史上称为“七国时代”(the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy)。这三个日耳曼部族虽然有各自的方言，但这些方言均属低地西日耳曼语(Low West Germanic)。有许多共同之处．因此三个部落在语言方面基本上是相通的。他们都使用一种叫做茹尼克（Runic）的文字。这种文字是古代日耳曼各民族通用的文字．它的字母主要由直线组成，以便于刻在木头或石块上，是一种由古希腊语和拉丁语发展起来的北欧碑文字。随着人类社会的发展，盎格鲁人、撒克逊人和朱特人逐渐形成统一的英吉利民族．他们各自使用的方言也逐渐溶合，出现了一种新的语言枣盎格鲁撒克逊语(Anglo-Saxon)。这就是古英语。它是在特定的地理和历史环境中，经过一系列民族迁移与征服的过程所形成的。

那么English和England的名称是如何来的呢？原来，凯尔特人将征服他们的盎格鲁人、撒克逊人和朱特人习惯地统称为Saxons(撒克逊人)。早期拉丁语学者仿照凯尔特人的习惯．也将这三个日耳曼部族称作Saxones．并将他们征服的不列颠称作Saxonia。到了公元七世纪． 由于用森伯利亚王国和梅尔西亚王国在政治上和文化上的影响剧增，而在这棿�ň酉吕吹闹饕�前桓衤橙耍��栽缙诶�⊙д哂殖S?/FONT>Angli和Anglia指所有的三个部族和他们在不列颠所占有的地盘。随后,Angli和Anglia在拉丁语著作中分别代替了Saxones和Saxonia。到了公元700年所有的人都把当时通行在不列颠岛上的语言称作Englisc（盎格鲁人一直就是这样称呼其使用的语言的)，三个入侵的日耳曼部族则统称为Angelcynn(=kin of the Angles即“盎格鲁人的家族”)到了公元1000年整个国家则被称作Englaland (=land of the Angles盎格鲁人的土地)。由于语言内部在发音和拼写方面发生了演变Englisc和Englaland才变成了今天的English和England。

在追溯英语的历史发展时，我们通常将它分为三个时期：（一）古英语(Old English)，从公元450年至1150年；(二)中古英语(Middle English)，从公元1150年至1500年；，（三）现代英语(Modern English)，从1500年至今。为便于研究，我们常把1500?/FONT>1700年的英语称作“早期现代英语”(Early Modern English)，1700年至今的英语称作“后期现代英语”(Later Modern English)。这样的分期当然不是绝对的，但它有助于我们对英语历史发展全过程的了解和研究。

Answer 2

A Brief Look at the History of English

The history of English is conventionally, if perhaps too neatly, divided into three periods usually called Old English (or Anglo-Saxon), Middle English, and Modern English. The earliest period begins with the migration of certain Germanic tribes from the continent to Britain in the fifth century A. D., though no records of their language survive from before the seventh century, and it continues until the end of the eleventh century or a bit later. By that time Latin, Old Norse (the language of the Viking invaders), and especially the Anglo-Norman French of the dominant class after the Norman Conquest in 1066 had begun to have a substantial impact on the lexicon, and the well-developed inflectional system that typifies the grammar of Old English had begun to break down. The following brief sample of Old English prose illustrates several of the significant ways in which change has so transformed English that we must look carefully to find points of resemblance between the language of the tenth century and our own. It is taken from Aelfric's "Homily on St. Gregory the Great" and concerns the famous story of how that pope came to send missionaries to convert the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity after seeing Anglo-Saxon boys for sale as slaves in Rome:

Eft he axode, hu ðære ðeode nama wære þe hi of comon. Him wæs geandwyrd, þæt hi Angle genemnode wæron. Þa cwæð he, "Rihtlice hi sind Angle gehatene, for ðan ðe hi engla wlite habbað, and swilcum gedafenað þæt hi on heofonum engla geferan beon."

A few of these words will be recognized as identical in spelling with their modern equivalents -- he, of, him, for, and, on -- and the resemblance of a few others to familiar words may be guessed -- nama to name, comon to come, wære to were, wæs to was -- but only those who have made a special study of Old English will be able to read the passage with understanding. The sense of it is as follows: "Again he [St. Gregory] asked what might be the name of the people from which they came. It was answered to him that they were named Angles. Then he said, 'Rightly are they called Angles because they have the beauty of angels, and it is fitting that such as they should be angels' companions in heaven.' " Some of the words in the original have survived in altered form, including axode (asked), hu (how), rihtlice (rightly), engla (angels), habbað (have), swilcum (such), heofonum (heaven), and beon (be). Others, however, have vanished from our lexicon, mostly without a trace, including several that were quite common words in Old English: eft "again," ðeode "people, nation," cwæð "said, spoke," gehatene "called, named," wlite "appearance, beauty," and geferan "companions." Recognition of some words is naturally hindered by the presence of two special characters, þ, called "thorn," and ð, called "edh," which served in Old English to represent the sounds now spelled with th.

Other points worth noting include the fact that the pronoun system did not yet, in the late tenth century, include the third person plural forms beginning with th-: hi appears where we would use they. Several aspects of word order will also strike the reader as oddly unlike ours. Subject and verb are inverted after an adverb -- þa cwæð he "Then said he" -- a phenomenon not unknown in Modern English but now restricted to a few adverbs such as never and requiring the presence of an auxiliary verb like do or have. In subordinate clauses the main verb must be last, and so an object or a preposition may precede it in a way no longer natural: þe hi of comon "which they from came," for ðan ðe hi engla wlite habbað "because they angels' beauty have."

Perhaps the most distinctive difference between Old and Modern English reflected in Aelfric's sentences is the elaborate system of inflections, of which we now have only remnants. Nouns, adjectives, and even the definite article are inflected for gender, case, and number: ðære ðeode "(of) the people" is feminine, genitive, and singular, Angle "Angles" is masculine, accusative, and plural, and swilcum "such" is masculine, dative, and plural. The system of inflections for verbs was also more elaborate than ours: for example, habbað "have" ends with the -að suffix characteristic of plural present indicative verbs. In addition, there were two imperative forms, four subjunctive forms (two for the present tense and two for the preterit, or past, tense), and several others which we no longer have. Even where Modern English retains a particular category of inflection, the form has often changed. Old English present participles ended in -ende not -ing, and past participles bore a prefix ge- (as geandwyrd "answered" above).

The period of Middle English extends roughly from the twelfth century through the fifteenth. The influence of French (and Latin, often by way of French) upon the lexicon continued throughout this period, the loss of some inflections and the reduction of others (often to a final unstressed vowel spelled -e) accelerated, and many changes took place within the phonological and grammatical systems of the language. A typical prose passage, especially one from the later part of the period, will not have such a foreign look to us as Aelfric's prose has; but it will not be mistaken for contemporary writing either. The following brief passage is drawn from a work of the late fourteenth century called Mandeville's Travels. It is fiction in the guise of travel literature, and, though it purports to be from the pen of an English knight, it was originally written in French and later translated into Latin and English. In this extract Mandeville describes the land of Bactria, apparently not an altogether inviting place, as it is inhabited by "full yuele [evil] folk and full cruell."

In þat lond ben trees þat beren wolle, as þogh it were of scheep; whereof men maken clothes, and all þing þat may ben made of wolle. In þat contree ben many ipotaynes, þat dwellen som tyme in the water, and somtyme on the lond: and þei ben half man and half hors, as I haue seyd before; and þei eten men, whan þei may take hem. And þere ben ryueres and watres þat ben fulle byttere, þree sithes more þan is the water of the see. In þat contré ben many griffounes, more plentee þan in ony other contree. Sum men seyn þat þei han the body vpward as an egle, and benethe as a lyoun: and treuly þei seyn soth þat þei ben of þat schapp. But o griffoun hath the body more gret, and is more strong, þanne eight lyouns, of suche lyouns as ben o this half; and more gret and strongere þan an hundred egles, suche as we han amonges vs. For o griffoun þere wil bere fleynge to his nest a gret hors, 3if he may fynde him at the poynt, or two oxen 3oked togidere, as þei gon at the plowgh.

The spelling is often peculiar by modern standards and even inconsistent within these few sentences (contré and contree, o [griffoun] and a [gret hors], þanne and þan, for example). Moreover, in the original text, there is in addition to thorn another old character 3, called "yogh," to make difficulty. It can represent several sounds but here may be thought of as equivalent to y. Even the older spellings (including those where u stands for v or vice versa) are recognizable, however, and there are only a few words like ipotaynes "hippopotamuses" and sithes "times" that have dropped out of the language altogether. We may notice a few words and phrases that have meanings no longer common such as byttere "salty," o this half "on this side of the world," and at the poynt "to hand," and the effect of the centuries-long dominance of French on the vocabulary is evident in many familiar words which could not have occurred in Aelfric's writing even if his subject had allowed them, words like contree, ryueres, plentee, egle, and lyoun.

In general word order is now very close to that of our time, though we notice constructions like hath the body more gret and three sithes more þan is the water of the see. We also notice that present tense verbs still receive a plural inflection as in beren, dwellen, han, and ben and that while nominative þei has replaced Aelfric's hi in the third person plural, the form for objects is still hem. All the same, the number of inflections for nouns, adjectives, and verbs has been greatly reduced, and in most respects Mandeville is closer to Modern than to Old English.

The period of Modern English extends from the sixteenth century to our own day. The early part of this period saw the completion of a revolution in the phonology of English that had begun in late Middle English and that effectively redistributed the occurrence of the vowel phonemes to something approximating their present pattern. (Mandeville's English would have sounded even less familiar to us than it looks.) Other important early developments include the stabilizing effect on spelling of the printing press and the beginning of the direct influence of Latin and, to a lesser extent, Greek on the lexicon. Later, as English came into contact with other cultures around the world and distinctive dialects of English developed in the many areas which Britain had colonized, numerous other languages made small but interesting contributions to our word-stock.

The historical aspect of English really encompasses more than the three stages of development just under consideration. English has what might be called a prehistory as well. As we have seen, our language did not simply spring into existence; it was brought from the Continent by Germanic tribes who had no form of writing and hence left no records. Philologists know that they must have spoken a dialect of a language that can be called West Germanic and that other dialects of this unknown language must have included the ancestors of such languages as German, Dutch, Low German, and Frisian. They know this because of certain systematic similarities which these languages share with each other but do not share with, say, Danish. However, they have had somehow to reconstruct what that language was like in its lexicon, phonology, grammar, and semantics as best they can through sophisticated techniques of comparison developed chiefly during the last century. Similarly, because ancient and modern languages like Old Norse and Gothic or Icelandic and Norwegian have points in common with Old English and Old High German or Dutch and English that they do not share with French or Russian, it is clear that there was an earlier unrecorded language that can be called simply Germanic and that must be reconstructed in the same way. Still earlier, Germanic was just a dialect (the ancestors of Greek, Latin, and Sanskrit were three other such dialects) of a language conventionally designated Indo-European, and thus English is just one relatively young member of an ancient family of languages whose descendants cover a fair portion of the globe.本回答被提问者采纳

Answer 3

Brief History of English
450-1150 Old English
1150-1500 Middle English (Chaucer)
1500-1800 Early Modern (Shakespeare)
1800-1900 19th century (Industrial Revolution & Victorians)
1900-1993 Modern (Technology)

Celts dominated southern Germany and the northern Alps in the 1st millennium BC. They began migrating in all directions in the 5th century BC, though it is not known when they reached Britain. They were eventually pushed back to the Scottish Highlands in the north, Wales in the west, and Cornwall in the southwest, by the invading Anglo-Saxons who began arriving in the 5th century AD. In the 6th century a large group from South Wales and Cornwall emigrated to Brittany in northern France where they still speak Breton. In the 7th century Scottish Gaelic was introduced from Ireland. Little is known of the Picts whose language died out in the 10th century as the people merged with the Scots.

Languages in Britain
In addition to English, Scottish Gaelic is spoken in Scotland, Irish Gaelic is spoken in Ireland, Welsh is spoken in Wales, Romany has been spoken by travelling gypsies for centuries all over Europe including Britain, Manx was spoken in the Isle of Man until the middle part of this century, and Cornish was spoken in Cornwall until about the end of the eighteenth century.

English is primarily a Germanic language stemming from invading Angle, Saxon, Jute and Frisian tribes of northern Germany who settled in England in the 5th century, the beginning of the Old English Period. This language derived from Proto-Germanic, which was the mother tongue of German, English, Dutch, Swedish, Danish, and Norwegian. It was the main branch of the prehistoric Indo- European language.

The Angel-Seaxans were the English Saxons, as opposed to the Ald-Seaxans. the Old Saxons of the continent.

English evolved into a distinct language separate from the original speech of the Angels and Saxons by around the 10th century. Of the 1000 most frequently used words 83% are of Old English origin. Of our remaining vocabulary about 30% are Anglo- Saxon survivals. Tens of thousands of our current words are of French and Latin origin.

Old English 450-1150 (Germanic)
Old English is predominantly Anglo-Saxon. It also borrowed from church Latin (~450 words) and from Old Norse. 7th century Christian missions to Britain brought learning and literacy, initially entirely in Latin, but an Old English written language did emerge in the northeast and in the West Saxon kingdom of Alfred the Great in the second half of the 9th century.

The first known written English sentence, "This she-wolf is a reward to my kinsman," is an Anglo Saxon runic inscription on a gold medallion (about the size of a 50› piece) found in Suffolk, dated about AD 450-480.

From the 8th to the 11th centuries Vikings plundered lands adjacent to the Baltic and North Seas. The Danish King Cnut conquered Norway and England, usurping the English throne, in the early 11th century. Large numbers of Scandinavians settled in England throughout the Old English period, giving the language several thousand common words.

Old English characters: ash ‘ /a/, thorn /th/, eth /dh/, and schwa.

With his invading Normans, William the Conqueror (1066) established French Domination. They were originally Danes (`Northmen') who settled the northern coast of France (Normandy) in the 8th and 9th centuries. All Old English nobility were wiped out. Norman French became the language of the aristocracy and government (Normanized Latin was used in government, church and learning), and English remained the speech of the masses. So until about 1200 it was bilingual, when many french words were absorbed into English. (English: ox, sheep, swine, calf. French: beef, mutton, pork, veal.)

By the mid-1300s English had reasserted itself, with a statute in 1362 enacted in Parliament that all lawsuits be conducted in English. French became a cultivated rather than a native language. The Hundred Years' War (1337-1453) meant French was the language of the enemy country. Black Death (1349-50), which killed off 30% of the people, increased the economic importance of the labouring classes and with it the importance of their language.

Middle English 1150-1500 (Germanic + Romance)
Geoffrey Chaucer (1340-1400). Chaucer's English (the variety or dialect spoken in London) established itself as the standard. However, from 1250-1400 English adopted the greatest number of French words (40%), and of the nearly 10,000, 75% are still in use.

It also changed in fundamental ways, especially in pronunciation and grammar (simpler), from highly inflected (Germanic) to a very analytical (modern). Some dialects retain some of the early pronunciations for a few words (/doon/ for down in northern England and Scotland).

Early Modern English 1500-1800 (Renaissance)
In 1476, William Caxton (1422-1491) set up the first printing press in Westminster Abbey. By 1640 there were 20,000 titles printed (mostly in London) in English. This pushed English, written and spoken, towards a standard form. The Dictionary was produced, notably Samuel Johnson's in 1755 (which he did on his own time!).

1650-1800: The Age of Reason (Augustan Age), characterized by a strong sense of order and value of standards and regulations. The language of this time is recognizable today. The `Great Vowel Shift' occurred, and spelling reform. A strong central government used English as the national language for all purposes despite the revival of the classics.

Latin and Greek were the most important sources of new words, followed by French, Italian, and Spanish. Most Latin and Greek introductions were deliberate attempts by 16th and early 17th century writers to enrich the language, to elevate `low' English.

Words also came in from 50 other languages, largely due to the expansion of the British Empire.

19th Century English 1800-1900 (No change - just expansions)
The Industrial Revolution and the Victorian Age. Words began to come to England from America. English dialect terms became standard English.

American English
The first settled English colony was in Jamestown, Virginia in 1607 who were contemporaries of William Shakespeare (1564-1616), Francis Bacon (1561-1626), Christopher Marlowe (1564-1593) and Donne (1572-1631). By the 18th century American was recognized as distinct from British English. The earliest sign is perhaps the absorption of Indian words, almost exclusively the Algonquian speaking tribes. American also borrowed many words from Africans brought in with the slave trade, and European immigrants, but they tended to be regional: African in the South, French in Louisiana, Spanish in the Southwest, German in Pennsylvania, Dutch in New York, Spanish being the most pervasive European language that American borrowed from.

Many words and pronunciations died out in England but survive in American. Words adopted new meanings in the new world. Great changes were wrought in 20th century American, with global economic, political, and technological prominence.

Modern English 1900-present
Science and Technology, the entertainment industry, the world wars, the car have contributed to the English lexicon. Formations: `self-explaining compounds', Greek and Latin compounds, borrowings from other languages, deliberate coinages, extending meaning of current words, slang, and acronyms; are used ever more frequently
http://www.tutorpal.com/Our_English/History/csoon.html

Answer 4

Old English, until 1066
Immigrants from Denmark and NW Germany arrived in Britain in the 5th and 6th Centuries A.D., speaking in related dialects belonging to the Germanic and Teutonic branches of the Indo-European language family. Today, English is most closely related to Flemish, Dutch, and German, and is somewhat related to Icelandic, Norwegian, Danish, and Swedish. Icelandic, unchanged for 1,000 years, is very close to Old English. Viking invasions, begun in the 8th Century, gave English a Norwegian and Danish influence which lasted until the Norman Conquest of 1066.

Old English Words

The Angles came from an angle-shaped land area in contemporary Germany. Their name "Angli" from the Latin and commonly-spoken, pre-5th Century German mutated into the Old English "Engle". Later, "Engle" changed to "Angel-cyn" meaning "Angle-race" by A.D. 1000, changing to "Engla-land". Some Old English words which have survived intact include: feet, geese, teeth, men, women, lice, and mice. The modern word "like" can be a noun, adjective, verb, and preposition. In Old English, though, the word was different for each type: gelica as a noun, geic as an adjective, lician as a verb, and gelice as a preposition.

Middle English, from 1066 until the 15th Century

The Norman Invasion and Conquest of Britain in 1066 and the resulting French Court of William the Conqueror gave the Norwegian-Dutch influenced English a Norman-Parisian-French effect. From 1066 until about 1400, Latin, French, and English were spoken. English almost disappeared entirely into obscurity during this period by the French and Latin dominated court and government. However, in 1362, the Parliament opened with English as the language of choice, and the language was saved from extinction. Present-day English is approximately 50% Germanic (English and Scandinavian) and 50% Romance (French and Latin).

Middle English Words

Many new words added to Middle English during this period came from Norman French, Parisian French, and Scandinavian. Norman French words imported into Middle English include: catch, wage, warden, reward, and warrant. Parisian French gave Middle English: chase, guarantee, regard, guardian, and gage. Scandinavian gave to Middle English the important word of law. English nobility had titles which were derived from both Middle English and French. French provided: prince, duke, peer, marquis, viscount, and baron. Middle English independently developed king, queen, lord, lady, and earl. Governmental administrative divisions from French include county, city, village, justice, palace, mansion, and residence. Middle English words include town, home, house, and hall.

Early Modern English, from the 15th Century to the 17th Century

During this period, English became more organized and began to resemble the modern version of English. Although the word order and sentence construction was still slightly different, Early Modern English was at least recognizable to the Early Modern English speaker. For example, the Old English "To us pleases sailing" became "We like sailing." Classical elements, from Greek and Latin, profoundly influenced work creation and origin. From Greek, Early Modern English received grammar, logic, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music. Also, the "tele-" prefix meaning "far" later used to develop telephone and television was taken.

Modern English, from the 17th Century to Modern Times

Modern English developed through the efforts of literary and political writings, where literacy was uniformly found. Modern English was heavily influenced by classical usage, the emergence of the university-educated class, Shakespeare, the common language found in the East Midlands section of present-day England, and an organized effort to document and standardize English. Current inflections have remained almost unchanged for 400 years, but sounds of vowels and consonants have changed greatly. As a result, spelling has also changed considerably. For example, from Early English to Modern English, lyf became life, deel became deal, hoom became home, mone became moon, and hous became house.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Modern English

Modern English is composed of several languages, with grammar rules, spelling, and word usage both complimenting and competing for clarity. The disadvantages of Modern English include: an alphabet which is unable to adequately represent all needed sounds without using repeated or combined letters, a limit of 23 letters of the 26 in the alphabet which can effectively express twice the number of sounds actually needed, and a system of spelling which is not based upon pronunciation but foreign language word origin and countless changes throughout history. The advantages of Modern English include: single consonants which are clearly understood and usually represent the same sounds in the same positions, the lack of accent marks found in other languages which permits quicker writing, and the present spelling displays European language origins and connections which allows European language speakers to become immediately aware of thousands of words.

Modern English Words

British English, known as Standard English or Oxford English, underwent changes as the colonization of North American and the creation of the United States occurred. British English words changed into American English words, such as centre to center, metre to meter, theatre to theater, favour to favor, honour to honor, labour to labor, neighbour to neighbor, cheque to check, connexion to connection, gaol to jail, the storey of a house to story, and tyre for tire. Since 1900, words with consistent spelling but different meanings from British English to American English include: to let for to rent, dual carriageway for divided highway, lift for elevator, amber for yellow, to ring for to telephone, zebra crossing for pedestrian crossing, and pavement for sidewalk.

American English, from the 18th Century until Modern Times
Until the 18th Century, British and American English were remarkably similar with almost no variance. Immigration to America by other English peoples changed the language by 1700. Noah Webster, author of the first authoritative American English dictionary, created many changes. The "-re" endings became "-er" and the "-our" endings became "-or". Spelling by pronunciation and personal choice from Webster were influences.

Cough, Sought, Thorough, Thought, and Through

Why do these "ough" words have the same central spelling but are so different? This is a characteristic of English, which imported similarly spelled or defined words from different languages over the past 1,000 years.

Cough
From the Middle High German kuchen meaning to breathe heavily, to the French-Old English cohhian, to the Middle English coughen is derived the current word cough.
Sought

From the Greek hegeisthai meaning to lead, to the Latin sagire meaning to perceive keenly, to the Old High German suohhen meaning to seek, to the French-Old English secan, to the Middle English sekken, is derived the past tense sought of the present tense of the verb to seek.
Thorough

From the French-Old English thurh and thuruh to the Middle English thorow is derived the current word thorough.
Thought

From the Old English thencan, which is related to the French-Old English word hoht, which remained the same in Middle English, is derived the current word thought.
Through

From the Sanskrit word tarati, meaning he crossed over, came the Latin word, trans meaning across or beyond. Beginning with Old High German durh, to the French-Old English thurh, to the Middle English thurh, thruh, or through, is derived the current word through